On any given day in Central Oregon, you can swim in crisp snow-melt lakes, hike or ski from the tops of volcanoes, mountain bike through mixed conifer forests, and meander in arid flatlands. Because Central Oregon comprises a variety of eco-zones ranging from high alpine to the sagebrush steppe, its diverse landscapes lend themselves to many habitats, recreational activities, and environmental challenges. All of which have a unique and evolving relationship with fire. 

Historically, before logging, ranching, urban development, and intentional fire suppression, the dry forests surrounding Bend were dominated by towering conifers like ponderosa pine, Douglas fir (technically not a fir but a species of pine), and other fire-resistant species. The understory comprised shade-tolerant trees like grand fir and lodgepole pine; shrubs like manzanita, snowbrush, and Woods’ rose; and native grasses and flowers whose populations and growth were contained by frequent low-intensity fires. Often started by lightning strikes or by Indigenous People after harvesting seasons, these fires helped reduce overcrowding, clear away underbrush, and keep infestations like bark beetle outbreaks in check. Because these low-burning, fast-moving flames are no match for the thick, fire-resistant bark of mature conifers, the forests surrounding Bend remained ancient and thriving for thousands of years.

After the Treaty of 1855 ceded 10 million acres of Indigenous land to the United States, reserving only 578,000 acres for what has become the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs Reservation, the Columbia River became a major east-west route for Euro-American colonizers. In 1861, construction of the Santiam Wagon Road just outside of Sisters began, following traditional Indigenous trails, and opened Eastern Oregon to ranchers, farmers, and loggers from the Willamette Valley. In the mid-1800s, when Euro-Americans arrived, they brought cattle, sheep, and horses that grazed on delicate grasses and flowers, stripping the forests of their natural ground cover. Without these fuels, nature’s ability to send low-intensity fires through quickly and efficiently was diminished. Because the area’s historical fire cycles posed too many risks to livestock, timber stands, farms, and newly privatized property, intentional fire suppression began in the early 1900s. 

As Central Oregon’s newest residents quelled fires instead of letting them run their course, ladder fuels thrived. Shade-tolerant understory species suddenly had time to grow. Thickets of shrubs and bushes proliferated. At the same time, logging became one of Oregon’s most profitable industries, giving new homesteaders and businessmen another reason to suppress fires. As loggers systematically harvested the tallest trees to build homes, railroad tracks, and fences, and sold them over the mountains to build cities in the Willamette Valley, they stripped the land of its most fire-resistant conifers, forever transforming the makeup of the forests’ health. 

With the conifer overstory gone and understory species thriving, the area’s relatively open forests were now thick with tangles of young trees. Additionally, western juniper, a native species to Central Oregon that prefers arid, well-draining, rocky soils, suddenly had more time to grow and expand into traditionally pine-dominated forests. Today, you can find junipers growing alongside and as tall as pines, which is cause for concern because junipers are a ladder fuel that can carry fire upwards into the overstory, catching the tops of older ponderosas and lowering the resilience of mixed conifer forests. Not only do junipers burn quickly and hot, but they also have no dormant season. They take up water year-round, putting a strain on the groundwater supply.

Without systematic fires controlling their population growth, juniper trees have spread into many new territories, creating new types of forests. Some organizations, like the Oregon Natural Desert Association, are conducting restoration activities to prevent junipers from taking hold in open grasslands, aspen groves, and along waterways where their long taproots and shallow lateral roots outcompete other critical native species. Their population boom has some fire mitigators concerned because mature junipers are extremely receptive to embers, can grow relatively tall and close to one another, and have the potential to spread fire rapidly. On the other hand, western junipers provide critical shelter and food sources for birds and animals throughout the year. Their dusty blue cones (often called berries and a key ingredient in making gin) are often still on branches during long, harsh winter months, and their thick foliage provides year-round weather and wind protection. 

While the spread of Western juniper has pros and cons, a devastating invasion that negatively affects how Central Oregon’s landscapes interact with fire comes from cheatgrass. Presumably, cheatgrass arrived in Western America via European ships carrying foreigners and livestock in the mid-1800s and has since come to dominate many western landscapes. Because cheatgrass goes to seed earlier than native species, grows sooner, and browns by mid-summer, it creates a quick-burning fuel that spreads fires fast and relentlessly. Its seeds have sharp barbs that are perfect for catching on socks, boots, and fur, and can lie dormant for years until conditions are right for sprouting. Once a fire has gone through, cheatgrass is often the first to rebound, crowding out slower-to-grow native species and exacerbating the invasive cycle.

Today, the proliferation of cheatgrass in Central Oregon and across the American West has changed how the land carries fire. Historically, the sagebrush steppe—the arid landscapes found east of Bend—was considered a fire safety zone because native plants like sagebrush, bitterbrush, and rabbitbrush didn’t grow close enough together to carry fire efficiently. The fires that burned into the flatlands tended to die on their own. Now, because juniper is encroaching into new territory and cheatgrass often grows in the empty spaces between native plants, fire behavior has become much more dynamic, intense, and quick to spread. Eco-zones that would have naturally stopped a fire are now helping flames move across the landscape more quickly. 

The next time you go hiking or biking east of Bend in the dry sagebrush lands, see if you can spot invasive cheatgrass. Always check your socks, sleeves, boots, and furry friends to ensure you’re not carrying hitchhiking seeds. The Oregon Badlands Wilderness, just east of Bend off Highway 20, is also a great place to see old-growth western juniper (trees over 1,000 years old), rabbitbrush, and sagebrush—all native to Central Oregon.

When you head into the forests west of town toward Mt. Bachelor and the Three Sisters, notice the difference between tall open stands of ponderosa pines and the thick, overcrowded clumps of nascent trees. Chances are that those clean, open forests result from recent forest management efforts by both public and private landowners. 

Although returning the landscape to pre-colonial conditions is impossible, many land managers, including the U.S. Forest Service, tribal nations, nature conservancies, state and local governments, and private landowners, are doing their best to reestablish healthy, more fire-resilient landscapes. Part of that includes considering each unique acre and deciding what that landscape needs. A specific piece of land historically supported by 100 trees per acre could now have 2,000 trees per acre because of fire suppression. So, the first step is often thinning—taking out overcrowded stands of young, similar-aged trees. After thinning and trimming, the next step is piling slash and burning it. Once that’s done, the remaining trees will be more resilient and should respond positively, as they historically did, when fire is put on the ground. 

One of the biggest land managers in Central Oregon is the U.S. Forest Service, which manages federal public lands like the 1.6-million-acre Deschutes National Forest that borders Bend’s west and south sides. In January 2022, Deschutes National Forest was selected as part of the Forest Service’s Wildfire Crisis Strategy (WCS) because it borders one of Oregon’s fastest-growing communities. The WCS, a 10-year plan aimed at confronting the wildfire crisis across 21 landscapes spanning 48 million acres in 10 western states, identifies Central Oregon as a high-risk area because it has 15 communities, 228 miles of transmission lines (345 volts or higher), and 53 watersheds near fire-dangerous areas. 

Because the U.S. Forest Service’s number one priority while managing the health of National Forest lands is to maintain public safety, and because so many homes, ranches, fences, and other infrastructure are within the Wildfire Urban Interface (WUI), the Forest Service can’t just let fires burn through and take their natural course. Instead, they follow a detailed “forest plan.” Every prescribed fire has a precisely calculated “burn plan.” These burn plans consider weather forecasts, ground moisture, wind speeds, air temperature, atmospheric stability, the types of materials being burned, and the kinds of trees that are still standing. Perhaps most importantly for those living in, visiting, and recreating around Bend, each burn plan also considers smoke management, significantly affecting seasonal activities and events in nearby communities like Sisters, Redmond, and Bend. 

Understanding the nuance of microclimates is critical before starting a prescribed burn. For example, while February may be a perfect time for a controlled burn because the ground is wet and there are fewer tourists and outdoor community events, February often sees very stable air masses or inversions, which means the air isn’t moving. So, while the conditions on the ground may be perfect for burning, the atmospheric conditions may cause smoke to settle in town and affect the quality of life for nearby residents and communities. 

Land managers rely heavily on scientific data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), local and regional scientists and biologists, and active nonprofit organizations like the Nature Conservancy to make these decisions and calculate the best time for prescribed burns. In places like Bend, those starting prescribed burns must consider natural habitats, recreational activities, and community events, which are significant economic and social draws to the region.

Thanks to the Wyden Amendment, introduced by Oregon’s U.S. Senator Ron Wyden, which allows the Forest Service to work with private landowners on cross-border restoration projects, joint efforts in fire mitigation have been expanding the Forest Service’s reach. For example, a little over ten years ago, the Forest Service worked with the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation to treat Cow Meadow near Sparks Lake, northwest of Mt. Bachelor, to burn away encroaching stands of lodgepole pines. If left alone, the proliferating lodgepoles would have consumed the wet meadow, an essential habitat for waterfowl and resident elk herds. 

Similar joint efforts with the Forest Service have been conducted on Bureau of Land Management (BLM) land to restore meadowlands near the Little Deschutes River and with Bend Park and Recreation District at Shevlin Park to protect the Tumalo Creek watershed—a project that includes an excellent interpretive display about fire restoration that is worth visiting.

Land managers throughout the region must take the responsibility of fire mitigation seriously because today’s forests often contain too many ladder fuels and have too flammable an understory that, if left untreated, could result in a megafire that would significantly endanger lives, property, and natural habitats. 

Next time you’re recreating outside, consider the immense amount of planning, hours, and organizations working hard to reestablish Central Oregon’s landscapes to be healthier and more fire resilient. You may also consider signing up for wildfire and prescribed burn text message alerts at CentralOregonFire.org or by texting “COFIRE” to 888-777. Staying informed and aware of upcoming prescribed burns is an important part of making summer and fall plans.